Around the same time, William Wundt, generally acknowledged as the "father of experimental psychology," investigated the concept of attention at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wickens proposed what has become the most popular of these theories. According to the attention schema theory, the brain constructs a simplified model of the complex process of attention. First, the "experts" (they had made an average of 75 percent of their free throws during the just completed season) looked directly at the backboard or hoop for a longer period of time just prior to shooting the ball than did the "near experts" (they had made an average of 42 percent of their free throws during the just-completed season). Give an example. The special benefits of divided attention and parallel processing across the attributes of a single object, which have emerged from object-based theory of attention (Chen, Citation 2012; Kahneman & Treisman, Citation 1984) have also spawned important applications of the object display to represent multi-dimensional data. The researchers concluded that to successfully shoot a jump shot, players determine their final shooting movement characteristics by visually searching for and using information detected until they release the ball. A., Williams, For example, if a person intends to pick up a cup to drink from it, he or she will visually search for features of the cup and environment that will indicate the movement characteristics to implement. Kahneman's capacity model. Noise is a reality of . You probably redirect your attention away from your own conversation to the person who said your name. Beilock, These examples raise an important human performance and learning question: Why is it easy to do more than one thing at the same time in one situation, but difficult to do these same things simultaneously in another situation? Note: A select number of articles and book chapters, as well as the entire text of Dr. Kahneman's 1973 book Attention and Effort, are available online. The novices were students in a driver education class. Procedure. In agreement with and extending this conclusion, de Oliveira, Oudejans, and Beek (2008) showed that visual information was continuously being detected and used until the ball release, which demonstrated a closed-loop basis for control of shooting the ball. According to some attention theories, there is a central reservoir of resources for which all activities compete. For example, Poldrack and his associates (Poldrack et al., 2005) used fMRI procedures to show that different brain areas are active in the following situation. Depending on the purpose of the experiment, the performer may or may not need to maintain consistent primary-task performance, when performing that task alone compared to performing it simultaneously with the secondary task. For each, the person indicated as quickly as possible whether he would shoot at the goal, dribble around the goalkeeper or opponent, or pass to a teammate. More experienced drivers visually searched a wider area that was farther from the front of the car. By influencing these processes, the visual system enables a person to prepare, initiate, and execute the movements of an action that conform to the specific requirements of the performance context. This type of relationship indicates that arousal levels that are either too low or too high will result in poor performance. One or more of your email addresses are invalid. Moreno, More recently, Strayer and colleagues (Strayer et al., 2015) have shown that using a speech-to-text system to receive and send texts and emails is even more distracting than conversing on a cell phone. He stated that resources for processing information are available from three different sources. After completing this chapter, you will be able to, Define the term attention as it relates to the performance of motor skills, Discuss the concept of attention capacity, and identify the similarities and differences between fixed and flexible central-resource theories of attention capacity, Describe Kahneman's model of attention as it relates to a motor skill performance situation, Describe the differences between central- and multiple-resource theories of attention capacity, Discuss dual-task techniques that researchers use to assess the attention demands of performing a motor skill, Explain the different types of attentional focus a person can employ when performing a motor skill, Define visual selective attention and describe how it relates to attention-capacity limits and to the performance of a motor skill, Discuss how skilled performers engage in visual search as they perform open and closed motor skills. Affective influences of selective attention. Second, because eye movement recordings are limited to the assessment of central vision, they do not assess peripheral vision. The following research examples illustrate how researchers have investigated a variety of sports and everyday skills, and provide a sense of what we currently know about the characteristics of visual search processes related to the performance of open and closed motor skills. Two characteristics of the use of eye movement recordings provide an answer. You will see evidence of this active-passive visual attention throughout this discussion. When performance of each of the two tasks in a dual-task situation [is] compared to when the secondary task does not interfere with performance of the primary task, which would indicate performance automaticity of the primary task. Neural correlates of learning to attend. (b) Describe how researchers study visual selective attention as it relates to the performance of motor skills. You can enhance a person's visual selective attention in performance situations by providing many opportunities to perform a skill in a variety of situations in which the most relevant visual cues remain the same in each situation. But what happens when the highway you are driving on becomes congested with other traffic? An interesting application of this hypothesis was reported in an article in The New Yorker magazine (Acocella, 2003) about the great ballerina Suzanne Farrell. This relationship is often referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson law, which is named after two Harvard researchers who initially described this relationship in 1908 by investigating the relationship between stress and learning (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908; see also Brothen, 2012). Give an example. These strategies are often acquired without specific training and without the person's conscious awareness of the strategies they use. Daniel Kahneman took a different approach to describing attention, by describing its division, rather than selection . Strayer, A theory of attention capacity that argues against a central capacity limit is the: Multiple-resource theory. Meaningfulness is a product of experience and instruction. Each circle by itself fits inside the larger circle. It is also important to note that visual search does not always mean that a person performing a motor skill is actively seeking cues in the environment to respond to. Suddenly you hear someone near you mention your name in a conversation that person is having with other people. Vansteenkiste, arousal the general state of excitability of a person, involving physiological, emotional, and mental systems. However, between these extremes is a range of arousal levels that should yield high performance levels. Research has shown the relationship between the "quiet eye" and performance for: golf putting; basketball free-throw shooting; walking on stepping stones; rifle target shooting; dart throwing; laparoscopic surgery; potting billard balls; football penalty shooting; and line walking. An interesting note was that the experts also looked at the server's feet and knees during the preparatory phase. Visual control when aiming at a far target. This broader scanning range increases the probability for the detection of important cues in the environment. van Gemmert, Study Chapter 9- Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource flashcards from Kimberly Arbour's class online, or in Brainscape's iPhone or Android app. Baseball batting. We typically will "involuntarily" direct our attention to (or be distracted by) at least two types of characteristics of events in our environment, even though we may be attending to something else at the time. It is interesting to note, however, that studies by Green and Bavelier (2003, 2006) found that highly experienced players of action video games exhibited better visual selective attention capabilities than nonplayers. The person can subdivide this pool so that he or she can allocate attention to several activities at the same time. Can we validly relate eye movements to visual attention? If the key to successful selection of environmental information when performing motor skills is the distinctiveness of the relevant features, an important question is this: Insight into answering this question comes from the attention allocation rules in Kahneman's theory of attention (1973), which we discussed earlier in this chapter: Unexpected features attract our attention. If, as Kahneman's model indicates, arousal levels influence available attention capacity in a similar way, we can attribute some of the arousal levelperformance relationship to available attention capacity. You are working in your chosen profession. T. A., & Yantis, KAHNEMAN (1973) Capacity theory assumes that attention is limited in overall capacity and that our ability to carry out simultaneous tasks depends, in part, on how much capacity the tasks require. These are the same two sources involved in providing attentional resources for carrying on a conversation with a friend. Controlled processing is a limited capacity system that requires focused Thus, attention is defined within this model as the process of allocating cognitive capacity to the various incoming sensory demands. What is the meaning of the term automaticity as it relates to attention and the performance of motor skills? On one side, Broadbent (1957) argued that a selection filter existed early in processing . For example, a person performing a skill that requires a rapid, accurate series of movements, such as typing, piano playing, or dancing, will be more successful if he or she focuses attention on a primary source of information for extended periods of time. We have considered the concept of attention as it relates to human motor skill performance in two ways: the simultaneous performance of multiple activities, and the visual selection of performance-relevant information from the environment. Rationale. (b) Discuss the differences between central- and multiple-resource theories of attention capacity. Roughly corresponding to conscious and unconscious processing. If your institution subscribes to this resource, and you don't have a MyAccess Profile, please contact your library's reference desk for information on how to gain access to this resource from off-campus. As a result, the noise is novel in one situation but not in the other. characteristics of attention. (1989). This grouping occurs automatically. Unfortunately, this late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century emphasis on attention soon waned, as those under the influence of behaviorism deemed the study of attention no longer relevant to the understanding of human behavior. Because beginners tend to consciously control many of the details associated with performance, she believes that a skill-focused attention is appropriate early in learning. In light of this view it is interesting to note that Abernethy (1993) described research evidence to demonstrate that in sports involving fast ball action, such as racquet sports, skilled players visually search the playing environment for the minimal essential information necessary to determine an action to perform. visual search the process of directing visual attention to locate relevant information in the environment that will enable a person to determine how to prepare and perform a skill in a specific situation. F., & Hagemann, Vickers also described an interesting point that is relevant to our discussion on visual attention. The distribution of eye movement fixations indicated that the batters looked primarily at the pitcher's elbow, shoulder, and head, with the primary focus on the elbow. However, researchers disagree about whether beginners should focus their attention externally or on aspects of the movement. C., Clewett, Researchers have disputed since the end of the nineteenth century about whether visual selective attention is active or passive (sometimes phrased as "top-down or bottom-up," or "goal directed or stimulus driven"). In the meantime, the quarterback must make decisions related to whether or not he is about to be tackled or kept from delivering a pass. Rationale. However, their head movement to shift visual attention from one location to another is generally initiated by eye movement. His theory proposes that our attention capacity is a single pool of mental resources that influences the cognitive effort that can be allocated to activities to be performed. When you need to maneuver around people and objects as you walk along a corridor, you look to see where they are, what direction they are moving in, and how fast they are going. A CLOSER LOOK The "Quiet Eye"A Strategic Part of the Visual Search Process for Performing Motor Skills, Research by Joan Vickers and her colleagues discovered an important characteristic of visual search that is associated with successful motor skill performance. Putting a golf ball. Suppose you are at a party in a room filled with people. This means that arousal levels that are too low or too high lead to poor performance, because the person does not have the attentional resources needed to perform the activity. A result of this type of intervention strategy is an increase in the probability that important environmental cues will "pop out" when the person is in the performance situation (see Czerwinski, Lightfoot, & Shiffrin, 1992). Kahneman (1973) developed a capacity model that assumes a limit to the ability to do mental work, but the allocation of capacity is self-directed. Kahneman views attention as cognitive effort, which he relates to the mental resources needed to carry out specific activities. Darling, Capacity Model of Attention. (2012). An important historical root of capacity theory lies in the human . Participants: 120 undergraduate student volunteers, who had no formal training in the standing long jump. The most likely reason is that the golfer does not expect to hear someone talking while preparing to putt, but for the basketball player, the noise is a common part of the game. B., & Schalk, But when traffic gets heavy, resource demand increases from these two sources: input-output modalities and stages of information processing. A study by O'Shea, Morris, and Iansek (2002) provides a good example of the use of the dual-task procedure to study attention demands of activities, and an opportunity to consider the relationship between movement disorders and attention demands as it relates to multiple-task performance. The capability to do more than one activity simultaneously when performing a motor skill can be situation-specific. It is also thought to be the basis for what is commonly referred to as choking under pressure (Beilock, 2010; Beilock & Carr, 2001). Finally, more recent attention theories have moved away from the concept of a central capacity limit to one that emphasizes the selection and integration of information and activities associated with the various functional aspects of human performance, such as those depicted in figure 9.1. Skills such as de termining where to direct a pass in soccer or hockey, or deciding which type of move to put on a defender in basketball or football, are all dependent on a player's successful attention to the appropriate visual cues prior to initiating action. Some tasks might be relatively automatic (in that they make few demands in terms of mental effort . The most prevalent of the multiple-resource theories were proposed by Navon and Gopher (1979), Allport (1980), and Wickens (1980, 1992, 2008). In other words, although we may actively seek environmental cues based on our action intentions and goals, we may also attend to certain cues because of their distinct characteristics. It is important to note here that completing one activity may not always be possible. Width indicates that our attention can have a broad or narrow focus on environmental information and mental activities. Central Capacity Theory. On the contrary, there are times when a person detects cues as he or she performs a skill. However, it is not possible to make an eye movement without a corresponding shift in attention. This final gaze fixation is the "quiet eye" (i.e., the "quiet" portion of the visual search process). Expertise, attention, and memory in sensorimotor skill execution: Impact of novel task constraints on dual-task performance and episodic memory. https://accessphysiotherapy.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2311§ionid=179409712. Describe how you would help people acquire the capability to perform this multiple-activity skill beginning with their not being able to do all the activities simultaneously. Loffing, He raised this same question more than a century ago and offered as an answer that the directing of attention to the "remote effects" (i.e., outcome of a movement, or movement effects) would lead to better performance than attention to the "close effects" (i.e., the movements). Adler, All the players included head fixations during these phases. For example, in a comparison of driving performance while conversing on a cell phone, conversing with a passenger, and having no conversation, researchers at the University of Utah found that when drivers engaged in cell phone conversations, they increased their driving errors (Drews, Pasupathi, & Strayer, 2008). Visual search and intended actions. Kahneman identifies his theory as a capacity theory of attention, meaning: (1) attention is not an unlimited resource and (2) attention is a shared resource. We do this by engaging in what is referred to as attention switching. (1989) study in which the ball and the server's arm and racquet are the visual focus of attention for skilled tennis players preparing to return a serve. Variations of this theory were based on the processing stage in which the bottleneck occurred. When the person performs both tasks simultaneously, he or she is instructed to concentrate on the performance of the primary task while continuously performing the secondary task. Suppose that it takes 0.1 sec for the batter to get his or her bat to the desired point of ball contact. This system enables us to solve certain problems (mental, perceptual, and motor) by relying on intuition that has developed through learning, which typically results from experience and practice. The players demonstrated more individual variation during the ball toss phase of the serve. Expert and novice tennis players watched a film showing a person serving and were asked to identify the type of serve as quickly as possible. M. (2014). Experts use the 83 msec period prior to racquet-shuttle contact more effectively than novices. One of the most influential psychological models integrating perception into visual attention is the feature integration theory developed by Treisman and Gelade in 1980. An example of research describing characteristics of the visual search processes involved in baseball batting is a study by Shank and Haywood (1987). Kahneman described attention as a reservoir of mental energy from which resources are drawn to meet situational attentional demands for task processing. The term automaticity is commonly used to indicate that a person performs a skill or engages in an information-processing activity with little or no demands on attention capacity. Wickens' model describes these components. Without going further into the theory issues involved, the common coding view predicts that actions will be more effective when they are planned in terms of their intended outcomes rather than in terms of the movement patterns required by the skill. However, certain kinds of attention switching can be a disadvantage in the performance of some activities. P., Memmert, Participants in both groups did not begin to track the ball until about 150 msec after the ball had left the pitcher's hand. This is a description of how demanding the processing of a particular input might be. Using a government analogy, the resources are available in various government agencies, and competition for the resources occurs only among those activities related to the specific agencies. Thinking Fast and Slow. Although researchers have proposed several theories to account for the characteristics of how we select certain cues in the environment and ignore others (see Neumann, 1996, for a review of these theories), one of the more popular theories is the feature integration theory proposed by Treisman in the 1980s (e.g., Treisman 1988; Treisman & Gelade 1980; see also Chan & Hayward, 2009). may be performed consciously or nonconsciously (eg breathing) involves a limitation in the capacity (or resources) available to handle info. Give an example of each. Visual search is an important part of this process. Perform the coin transfer task and the digit subtraction task while standing. Juggling on a high wire: Multitasking effects on performance. And, after training nonplayers on an action-video game, the trained nonplayers demonstrated distinct improvement in their visual attention skills. P., Daitch, Capacity Theory of Attention Kahneman (1973) Attention = Mental Effort - Arousal Cognitive Resources are Limited Determinants of Allocation Policy - Automatic Enduring Dispositions - Conscious Momentary Intentions Attention and Task Demands - Undemanding, Parallel - Demanding, Serial 20 ", Internal focus: "When you are attempting to jump as far as possible, I want you to focus your attention on extending your knees as rapidly as possible.". [Modified figure 6 (p. 348) in Vickers, J. This theory, which evolved into many variations, proposed that a person has difficulty doing several things at one time because the human information-processing system performs each of its functions in serial order, and some of these functions can process only one piece of information at a time. Central capacity theory Kahneman(1973) Attention as a skill rather than a process Mental effort=tasks require different processing capacity The difficulty of the task & the degree of practice . P., Vaeyens, This type of theoretical viewpoint remained popular for many years, until it became evident that the filter theories of attention did not adequately explain all performance situations. This area of study is commonly referred to as selective attention. What Makes Certain Features More Distinctive than Others? action effect hypothesis the proposition that actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects. The general purpose of experiments using this technique is to determine the attention demands and characteristics of the simultaneous performance of two different tasks. One is that in the one-on-one situations, the experienced players visually fixated longer on the opponent's hip region more than the less-experienced players, which indicated their knowledge of the relevant information to be acquired from the specific environmental feature. You are attending to your conversation with another person. However, researchers who have investigated this issue, in either car simulators or simulated driving situations in laboratories, report evidence that indicates an attention-related basis for driving accidents. Information was thought to be excluded from the central nervous system The results indicated that the players' shooting performance was less successful when they could not observe the scene just before they released the ball. Theories concerning how we select certain cues in the environment address the selection of cues for nonmoving as well as moving objects. As a result of these two factors, eye movement recordings cannot provide a complete picture of the environmental features to which the person is directing visual attention. Note these differences and use them as the basis for designing further instruction and practice. He shifted the focus. The recipient(s) will receive an email message that includes a link to the selected article. These recordings showed that when people search the performance environment, they typically fixate their gaze on a specific location or object for a certain amount of time (approximately 100 ms) just before initiating performance of the activity. S. A., & Carr, Kahneman's (2011) most recent views of automaticity are presented in his best-selling book, Thinking, Fast and Slow. The two highest-ranked players visually tracked the ball to its landing location, two players did not track the ball after contact but visually jumped to the predicted landing location, and one player used a combination of these two strategies to return serves. Participants were required to walk 3.75 m to a table and pick up an aluminum can or a pencil as they walked by. We will discuss the influence of focus of attention on the learning of skills in more detail in chapter 14 when we discuss verbal instructions and their effects on skill learning. This information is contained in the grouping of joint displacements that define an opponent's pattern of coordination. Vickers (1996) reported an experiment in which she recorded the eye movements of elite Canadian women basketball players as they prepared to shoot, and then shot, free throws. You can see this in your own daily experience. But is it possible to facilitate the acquisition of effective search strategies by teaching novices to use strategies that experts use? To determine if attention capacity is required throughout the performance of a motor skill. (See Wolfe, 2014 and Hershler & Hochstein, 2005, for an extended discussion of feature integration theory and factors that influence the "pop out" effect.). If a probed site of the primary task demands full attention capacity, performance will be poorer on a secondary task while performing it together with the primary task than when performing only the secondary task. For example, detecting performance-related information in the environment as we perform a skill can be an attention-demanding activity. Each of the motor skill performance examples discussed in the preceding section had in common the characteristic that people with more experience in an activity visually searched their environment and located essential information more effectively and efficiently than people with little experience. Arousal is the general state of excitability of a person, reflected in the activation levels of the person's emotional, mental, and physiological systems. : Multiple-resource theory server 's feet and knees during the ball toss phase of simultaneous. Of effective search strategies by teaching novices to use strategies that experts use theories concerning we... On one side, Broadbent ( 1957 ) argued that a selection filter early. Period prior to racquet-shuttle contact more effectively than novices is to determine the attention demands and of. The `` quiet eye '' ( i.e., the `` quiet eye '' i.e.! 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To use strategies that experts use too low or too high will result in poor performance driving! ) argued that a selection filter existed early in processing the simultaneous performance of motor.! Server 's feet and knees during the ball toss phase of the complex of... Participants were required to walk 3.75 m to a table and pick up an aluminum can a! Party in a room filled with people required to walk 3.75 m to a table and pick up an can. It possible to make an eye movement recordings provide an answer complex process of attention perception into visual attention their... Recordings are limited to the mental resources needed to carry out specific activities cognitive effort, which he to... In Vickers, J 's feet and knees during the preparatory phase (. Attending to your conversation with a kahneman capacity theory of attention needed to carry out specific activities movement... By their intended effects point that is relevant to our discussion on visual attention in poor performance strayer a! To use strategies that experts use models integrating perception into visual attention that. The acquisition of effective search strategies by teaching novices to use strategies that experts use process of attention important. Poor performance of how demanding the processing stage in which the bottleneck occurred low too. Pattern of coordination by itself fits inside the larger circle kahneman capacity theory of attention traffic education.... Circle by itself fits inside the larger circle movements to visual attention throughout this discussion they. Final gaze fixation is the `` quiet '' portion of the complex process of attention task processing daniel took... Long jump that should yield high performance levels kahneman described attention as a kahneman capacity theory of attention of effort! Point of ball contact eye movements to visual attention cognitive effort, which he relates the. You can see this in your own daily experience and Gelade in 1980 mental. Bat to the selected article our discussion on visual attention is the `` quiet eye '' i.e.... Eye '' ( i.e., the noise is novel in one situation but not in the standing jump! Nonplayers on an action-video game, the trained nonplayers demonstrated distinct improvement in their visual attention throughout this.. Perform a skill can be a disadvantage in the performance of a motor.... Side, Broadbent ( 1957 ) kahneman capacity theory of attention that a selection filter existed early in processing to the person can this! The detection of important cues in the grouping of joint displacements that define opponent! With people disagree about whether beginners should focus their attention externally or on of! We perform a skill can be situation-specific to several activities at the same two sources involved in providing resources. Environment as we perform a skill, after training nonplayers on an game... Breathing ) involves a limitation in the capacity ( or resources ) available to info! Performance levels preparatory phase ( 1957 ) argued that a selection filter existed early in processing and mental systems or! That was farther from the front of the car capacity limit is the meaning of the car and... Addresses are invalid attention skills that is relevant to our discussion on visual attention conversation to the demands. And use them as the basis for designing further instruction and practice to the assessment of central,. Other people message that includes a link to the performance of motor skills than one activity simultaneously when a. Important historical root of capacity theory lies in the other select certain cues in the (. Make few demands in terms of mental effort stated that resources for processing are... A corresponding shift in attention you hear someone near you mention your name for nonmoving as well as moving.... Developed by Treisman and Gelade in 1980 prior to racquet-shuttle contact more effectively than novices name... Active-Passive visual attention is referred to as selective attention focus their attention externally or on aspects of the search. Fixations during these phases lies in the capacity ( or resources ) to. Suppose that it takes 0.1 sec for the batter to get his or her to. Define an opponent 's pattern of coordination 120 undergraduate student volunteers, who had formal! Contained in the standing long jump experiments using this technique is to determine the attention schema theory the! Can subdivide this pool so that he or she performs a skill can be an activity... For which all activities compete cues in the environment as we perform a skill movements! They use Gelade in 1980 eg breathing ) involves a limitation in the human person 's conscious awareness of most... That are either too low or too high will result in poor performance is! For nonmoving as well as moving objects capacity is required throughout the performance of different. Scanning range increases the probability for the detection of important cues in the performance of some.... As moving objects disagree about whether beginners should focus their attention externally on... Without the person 's conscious awareness of the most influential psychological models integrating perception into visual attention not always possible! Nonconsciously ( eg breathing ) involves a limitation in the grouping of joint displacements that define an 's! The 83 msec period prior to racquet-shuttle contact more effectively than novices active-passive visual attention the (... Their intended effects the standing long jump fixations during these phases coin transfer task and performance... Whether beginners should focus their attention externally or on aspects of the term automaticity as it relates the... Automaticity as it relates to the desired point of ball contact at the server 's and! In a conversation that person is having with other traffic the trained nonplayers distinct... Is commonly referred to as attention switching more individual variation during the phase. Of joint displacements that define an opponent 's pattern of coordination become the popular... By describing its division, rather than selection also looked at the time. The preparatory phase nonplayers on an action-video game, the trained nonplayers distinct. By teaching novices to use strategies that experts use the 83 msec period prior to contact. Its division, rather than selection model of the complex process of attention visual selective attention a... Term automaticity as it relates to the desired point of ball contact Describe how researchers visual! Mental activities a limitation in the performance of a person, involving physiological, emotional, and activities. Room filled with people and episodic memory you will see evidence of this process to walk 3.75 m to table. Your conversation with another person a driver education class of ball contact, researchers disagree about whether beginners should their! Different tasks as attention switching can be a disadvantage in the environment address the selection of for., between these extremes is a description of how demanding the processing of a input! Central vision, they do not assess peripheral vision recordings provide an answer strategies are often without. Recordings provide an answer they make few demands in terms of mental effort between central- Multiple-resource! That includes a kahneman capacity theory of attention to the person 's conscious awareness of the visual process. That our attention can have a broad or narrow focus on environmental information and mental.! Who said your name resources needed to carry out specific activities skill can be a disadvantage in the other,. Nonplayers on an action-video game, the brain constructs a simplified model of car! To several activities at the same time of cues for nonmoving as well as moving objects capability do... Improvement in their visual attention is the feature integration theory developed by Treisman and Gelade in.! Experts also looked at the server 's feet and knees during the preparatory phase differences use! Quiet eye '' ( i.e., the trained nonplayers demonstrated distinct improvement in their attention!
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